Factorization and Prime Numbers

The program FacTab produces a table of least prime divisors of odd numbers, up to $10^{9}$ . The values are calculated by dividing small primes into the numbers in the desired range, until the only numbers for which a least prime divisor has not been found are prime. Let $p$ be a given prime number. The least composite integer $n$ such that $p$ is the least prime factor of $n$ is $n=p^{2}$ . (In this connection, recall Problem 24. on p. 30 of NZM.) Thus if one is to prepare a table of least prime factors of integers in an interval $[a, b]$ , then it is useful to have on hand a table of all primes $p \leq b^{1 / 2}$ . In the case of FacTab, the intervals considered are of the form $[10 N, 10 N+200]$ with $N \leq 10^{8}$ . Since 31607 and 31627 are consecutive primes, and since

$31607^{2}<10^{9}+200<31627^{2}$

it suffices to have a table of primes through the prime 31607. Such a table of primes may be constructed as follows: Consider a sequence $a_{1}, a_{2}, \ldots, a_{31607}$ of $0$ 's and $1$ 's. Initially we take $a_{1}=0$ , and $a_{i}=1$ for all $i>1$ . We operate on this sequence so that eventually $a_{i}=1$ if $i$ is prime, $a_{i}=0$ otherwise. Start with $p=2$ , and while $p \leq 173$ perform the following operations: Put $j=p^{2}$ . This is the least composite integer such that $a_{j}$ is still 1. Put $a_{j}=0$ . Replace $j$ by $j+p$ , and set $a_{j}=0$ . Replace $j$ by $j+p$ . Continue in this manner until $j>31607$ . By examining the numbers $a_{p+1}, a_{p+2}, \ldots$ , find the least integer $q$ such that $q>p$ and $a_{q}=1$ . Then $q$ is the least prime number greater than $p$ . Replace $p$ by $q$ , and start over. This method of generating primes is known as the Sieve of Eratosthenes. It suffices to sieve only to $p=173$ , since 173 is the largest prime $\leq \sqrt{31607}$ . FacTab constructs a table of small primes in this way when the program is first loaded, with one modification: Since the even numbers are immediately eliminated, FacTab saves time and memory by applying the sieve only to the odd integers.

Problem 1

Use FacTab to view the least prime factors of the odd numbers in an interval. You will note that the least prime factor of numbers of the form $10 k+5$ display a certain pattern. Describe this pattern, and prove that it persists.

Problem 2

Can you find any other patterns similar to the one noted above?

Problem 3

For $5 \leq k \leq 20$ , how many primes lie between $e^{k}$ and $e^{k}+100$ ? How do these numbers compare with $100 / k$ ?

Problem 4

For several values of $x$ and $h$ (with $h$ small compared with $x$ ), count the primes between $x$ and $x+h$ , and compare the result with $h / \log x$ .

Problem 5

How many primes lie between 20831330 and 20831530? By changing the value of Start, determine whether this is typical of similar intervals in this vicinity. For a report of a more extensive study of the gaps between primes, see D. Shanks, On Maximal Gaps between Successive Primes, Math. Comp. 18 (1964), 646-651.

Problem 6

For how many integers $n \leq x$ is the least prime factor of $n$ greater than 2? Greater than 3? Than 5? Than 7? How do these numbers increase with $x$ ? Formulate a conjecture concerning the asymptotic behavior. Can you prove your conjecture? (Theorem 8.8(e) and Theorem 8.29 of NZM are relevant here.)

Problem 7

A prime number $p$ is called a twin prime if $p+2$ is also prime. Repeat Problem 3 above, but this time counting only twin primes. How do the counts compare with $100 / k^{2}$ ? Do you conjecture that there are infinitely many twin primes, or do you conjecture that there are only finitely many?

Problem 8

The program Factor determines the canonical factorization of an integer $n$ by trial division. Suppose that prime factors $<d$ have been found, and removed, leaving an integer $m$ yet to be factored. If $m=1$ then we are done. If $1<m<d^{2}$ then $m$ is prime, and we are done in this case also. Otherwise, we divide $d$ into $m$ . If $d \mid m$ then $d$ is prime, and we repeatedly divide by $d$ until $d$ no longer divides the remaining number. Then we replace $d$ by $d+1$ and repeat the process. To save time, after powers of 2 have been removed, only odd $d$ are considered. Further savings can be obtained by noting that after removing powers of 2 and of 3 it suffices to consider $d$ of the forms $d=6 k-1, d=6 k+1$ .

Factor takes this a step further: After powers of $2$ , $3$ and $5$ have been removed, only those $d$ of the eight forms $30k+1$ , $30k+7$ , $30k+11$ , $30k+13$ , $30k+17$ , $30k+19$ , $30k+23$ , $30k+29$ are considered. Thus $d$ is replaced by $d+30$ after only 8 trial divisions. This method is in principle slightly wasteful, because it would be enough to consider prime values of $d$ , but in practice it seems to take longer to generate a table of primes. (Try it, if you like to write programs.) Instead of generating a table of primes, one could construct a permanent file listing primes, and then call the needed primes from that file, but this seems to take still longer.

Use FacTab to find the largest prime $<10^{k}$ for $k=1,2, \ldots, 9$ . Apply Factor to each of these nine primes, and note the time required to perform the calculations. Is the time roughly $c \sqrt{n}$ ? What values of $c$ do you observe?

Problem 9

Apply Factor to each of the numbers $10^{18}-k$ for $k=1,2, \ldots, 9$ . In some of these cases, you will tire of waiting for a complete resolution. To interrupt the program, simply press a key, and note how the program reports its partial results.

Problem 10

Apply factor to 20 randomly-chosen numbers $\approx 10^{9}$ . Make a record of these numbers, and note which ones are square-free. What proportion of them are square-free? How close is this proportion to $6 / \pi^{2}=0.6079 \ldots$ ? How many integers $n \leq x$ are not divisible by 4? How many are not divisible by 9? How many by neither 4 nor 9? The proportion of $n \leq x$ for which $4 \nmid n$ and $9 \nmid n$ tends to a limit as $x$ tends to infinity. What is this limit?

Can you guess how this limit would change if we also require that $25 \nmid n$ ? (See Theorems 8.25 and 8.29 of NZM.)

Problem 11

The program GetNextP yields the least prime $p$ greater than a given number $a$ , provided that $a \leq 10^{9}$ . For $a$ in this range, GetNextP uses the same sieving procedure as found in FacTab. For larger values of $a, 10^{9}<a \leq 10^{18}$ , the program GetNextP locates the least integer $q>a$ that is likely to be prime. That is, the interval $(a, q)$ contains no prime number and $q$ is "probably" prime (in the sense that it passes several strong pseudoprime tests; this is discussed on pp. 77, 78 of NZM).

Use GetNextP to find the least prime $p>x$ , for several $x \approx 10^{8}$ . How are the differences $p-x$ distributed? What is their mean? If you like to program, you could conduct a larger study, and a more detailed statistical analysis.

The asyptotic situation remains a matter of conjecture, but it is expected that as $x$ tends to infinity, the mean lies between $(1-\epsilon) \log x$ and $(1+\epsilon) \log x$ . Also, for any fixed $c>0$ , it is predicted that the proportion of integers $x \leq X$ such that $p-x>c \log x$ tends to $e^{-c}$ as $X$ tends to infinity.

Problem 12

Write a program that deletes from a given sequence of integers those that are divisible by the square of a prime. In this way, count the number of square-free integers in various short intervals, and also the number of square-free integers not exceeding $10^{4}$ .

In Theorem 8.25 of NZM it is shown that the number $Q(x)$ of square-free integers not exceeding $x$ is $c x+O(\sqrt{x})$ where $c=6 / \pi^{2}$ . (The $O$ -notation is defined on p. 365 of NZM.) It is conjectured that the error term here is actually $O\left(x^{\theta}\right)$ for any $\theta>1 / 4$ . Although such a strong upper bound for the magnitude of the error term has not yet been proved, it is known that the error term does achieve the order of $x^{1 / 4}$ infinitely often. Does the numerical evidence generated by your program support the stronger conjecture? Still less is known concerning the variation in the number of square-free numbers in short intervals.